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<p><b>Transactive memory</b> is a psychological hypothesis first proposed by <a href="Daniel_Wegner" title="Daniel Wegner">Daniel Wegner</a> in 1985 as a response to earlier theories of "<a href="Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">group mind</a>" such as <a href="Groupthink" title="Groupthink">groupthink</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner85_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner85-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A transactive memory system is a mechanism through which groups collectively encode, store, and retrieve knowledge. Transactive memory was initially studied in <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/couple" class="extiw external" title="wikt:couple">couples</a> and <a href="Families" class="mw-redirect" title="Families">families</a> where individuals had close relationships but was later extended to teams, larger groups, and organizations to explain how they develop a "group mind",<sup id="cite_ref-wegner85_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner85-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a memory system that is more complex and potentially more effective than that of any of its individual constituents. A transactive memory system includes memory stored in each individual, the interactions between memory within the individuals, as well as the processes that update this memory. Transactive memory, then, is the shared store of knowledge.

</p><p>According to Wegner, a transactive memory system consists of the knowledge stored in each individual's memory combined with <a href="Metamemory" title="Metamemory">metamemory</a> containing information regarding the different teammate's domains of expertise.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner95_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner95-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The transactive memory system works similarly to <a href="External_memory_(psychology)" title="External memory (psychology)">external memory</a>, where other members of the group are the external memory aid. Just as an individual's metamemory allows them to be aware of what information is available for <a href="Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">retrieval</a>, so does the transactive memory system provide teammates with information regarding the <a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> they have access to within the group.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner86_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner86-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Group members learn who knowledge experts are and how to access expertise through communicative processes. In this way, a transactive memory system can provide the group members with more and better knowledge than any individual could access on their own.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>Transactive memory was first envisioned by Daniel Wegner in 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner85_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner85-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept proposed that when two individuals spend a lot of time around each other and work together, they create a shared store of knowledge between the members. In essence, one member of the couple could store information within their partner and then recall that information by asking their partner about it. This concept was different and unique from other descriptions of <a href="Socially_distributed_cognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Socially distributed cognition">socially distributed cognition</a> in that it describes a situation where individuals hold different knowledge compared to shared information, and members of the group engage in transactions to assist in recall of the stored information.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis11_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis11-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a recent review, Ren and <a href="Linda_Argote" title="Linda Argote">Argote</a> described transactive memory as existing of both a structural component (the linkages of individual memory to the collective) and transactive processes that make the transactive memory dynamic.<sup id="cite_ref-Ren11_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ren11-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wegner first proposed these three processes which occur in groups that lead to the formation and reification of transactive memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval described more below. In a series of experiments, Hollingshead found that romantic partners (who are assumed to have transactive memory) performed better on knowledge recall than dyads<sup id="cite_ref-Hollinghshead98B_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollinghshead98B-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that couples will memorize more words in a list than two strangers when they are rewarded on number of unique words you recall.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The explanation for these findings are that couples know how best to remind each other of the knowledge they have, and that couples have a good conception of the other's knowledge and will therefore avoid memorizing words within their partner's domain. Strangers don't have access to this same shared information which leads to poorer performance in these kinds of tasks. Transactive memory was further extended by Diane Liang and colleagues into the realm of work groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Liang95_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liang95-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this work, the development of transactive memory was conceived of as a way to improve group's performance when engaging in interdependent tasks. After this extension, transactive memory became more prolific in <a href="Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">organizational behavior</a> among other disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-Ren11_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ren11-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transactive_processes">Transactive processes</h2></div>

<p>Just like human memory, the development of a transactive memory system involves three stages: encoding, storage and retrieval. These processes are transactive, meaning that they are updated as members exchange information with one another.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner86_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner86-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encoding">Encoding</h3></div>

<p>In the <i><a href="Encoding" class="mw-redirect" title="Encoding">encoding</a></i> stage, the teammates gain information on the other team members' domains of knowledge and <a href="Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">categorize</a> it by ascribing each knowledge domain to the corresponding team member.<sup id="cite_ref-Rulke00_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rulke00-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes, this acquaintance can emerge through "who did what" or "who knows what" conversation, or even through direct instruction such as by telling a teammate to remember certain information. There may also be discussion and negotiation of where and in what form to store information in the group.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner86_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner86-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The encoding process is very important in the development of transactive memory.<sup id="cite_ref-Rulke00_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rulke00-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Encoding occurs through interaction between teammates: through sharing knowledge and seeking information from other team members, teammates learn the expertise of each team member as a first essential step towards specialization. These experts then are responsible for continuing to encode new and relevant information in their domains of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner86_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner86-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Storage">Storage</h3></div>

<p>In the <i><a href="Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">storage</a></i> stage, the relevant information is stored in the possession of the team member, or members, with the corresponding expertise; once the experts have been identified, new information is transmitted directly to those team members. This improves the <a href="Learning" title="Learning">learning</a> process and reduces the <a href="Cognitive_load" title="Cognitive load">load</a> on the memory of individual teammates.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner95_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner95-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With transactive memory storage, a team member only has to remember the information in their domain of expertise, while they only have to remember what the other members' domains of expertise are rather than storing all the information in the transactive memory.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner86_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner86-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Information may be also lost or modified during storage for transitive memory, as is the case in individual memory. These modifications, however, may be even more rapid and impactful than in individual memory because the information is scattered and stored with multiple members in the group, making the information more readily replaced with misinformation.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner86_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner86-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Retrieval">Retrieval</h3></div>

<p>During the <i><a href="Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">retrieval</a></i> stage, a group member uses the developed transactive memory to identify a group member that specializes in the required knowledge area and then turns to that member to attain the knowledge. If the inquiring member has not encoded in their individual metamemory who specializes in the knowledge, retrieval can be initiated by asking other members in the storage system for who the expert who specializes in the information they want to retrieve is, then connecting with that expert after a series of consultations.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner86_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner86-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If this information is accurate and useful, the linkage to the member with specialized knowledge is strengthened. If the information is not accurate, then the encoding stage is entered into again such that information about the inaccuracy of the knowledge the specialized member provided is re-encoded and stored in the transactive memory system.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div>

<p>Much research has shown that a transactive memory system is primarily developed through interactions between team members. Training on the task that a group is expected to do together has been shown to assist in the development of a transactive memory system.<sup id="cite_ref-Liang95_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liang95-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this study, when the group members were trained together, the team developed a stronger transactive memory system, recalled more information about the process, and made fewer errors compared to teams where individuals had gone through the same training but separately. The researchers concluded that the interactions that took place during the joint training allowed the team members to develop an understanding of their teammates' skills, assisted their search for relevant information about the task from their teammates, and assess the accuracy and reliability of this information. As a result, groups that trained together performed better in the task. In a later study, these same researchers also determined that familiarity with their teammates or liking didn't explain the differences between groups that were trained together and those that were not.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreland96_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreland96-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this study, the researchers gave the groups that didn't train together a team building exercise but they still did not do as well as the trained together group.

</p><p>Furthermore, research has shown that the knowledge about who knows what can be available before the team processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis,_K._2004_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_K._2004-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the first stage in a group's life cycle, knowing each of the team members' expertise allows the group to distribute work in a more efficient way and allocate different assignments to team members that are the most qualified for these assignments. The existence of many interactions in the early stages of group formation provides each of the teammates the opportunity to get to know other team members' training, level of expertise or the lack of knowledge in certain areas,<sup id="cite_ref-Hollinghshead98B_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollinghshead98B-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and develop a shared understanding of the task's requirements and the way that the total of the teammates knowledge combines.<sup id="cite_ref-canon93_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canon93-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Hence, it seems that communication serves as a crucial component in the development of transactive memory. Yet, it seems that not any kind of communication and interaction between team members will bring to the construction of transactive memory. Communication, in general serves as a way of transferring information from one person to another,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but for the purpose of transactive memory construction this communication must deal with information regarding the knowledge, expertise and relevant experience of other individuals in the system.<sup id="cite_ref-HollingsheadA_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HollingsheadA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the team members communicate more face to face while planning a project the TMS will emerge faster and will be stronger. The level of face to face communication while the team is planning could predict implementation-phase TMS.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis,_K._2004_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_K._2004-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Moreland & Myaskovsky (2000) showed that transactive memory can be developed without any interaction between teammates.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a substitute to teammates' communication they provided group members <a href="Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a> ranking team members' skills in the relevant task domains before they started performing the task. Although the feedback and the information regarding teammates knowledge was provided by the researchers and teammates did not communicate with each other beforehand, this information positively affected the team's transactive memory score and performance.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This experiment demonstrated that the sharing specific information regarding team members' knowledge and domains of expertise formation is necessary for transactive memory development, either through direct interaction or by another means of information transformation.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indicators">Indicators</h2></div>

<p>Many researchers consider the basic components of transactive memory system to be specialization, coordination and credibility.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a common misconception of how transactive memory systems operate within groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis11_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis11-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These indicators of TMS occur after a group has established a transactive memory system and are due to the existence of transactive memory within the group. Because these three factors occur more prevalently in groups that have developed a TMS, they are often measured as a proxy for measuring the exact transactive memory system. The most prevalent measure of transactive memory<sup id="cite_ref-Ren11_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ren11-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as developed by Kyle Lewis<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis03_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis03-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> measures these three components as indicators that a group has developed a transactive memory. Other measures, namely Austin's<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attempts to measure the perceptions of expertise within the group as a more direct measure of transactive memory.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialization">Specialization</h3></div>

<p>A strong transactive memory system is achieved when the group gains information about the knowledge repertoire that all other teammates hold and use this information in order to acquire different complementary knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis03_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis03-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once members within the group have a good understanding of who knows what within the group, they can begin to differentiate in their knowledge. This differentiation of knowledge is where the real benefit of a transactive memory system is enacted because, with less overlap in member's areas of expertise, distribution of labor becomes easier and the group can become more efficient (Wegner 1987). When each team member can deepen his knowledge in any areas that are lacking (as opposed to acquiring congruent knowledge) they will enlarge the teams' total collective knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis03_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis03-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hollingshead (1998a) demonstrated that specialization lead to a more efficient and organized effort investment in information retrieval, prevention of information redundancy and supplied accessibility to larger range of expertise.<sup id="cite_ref-HollingsheadA_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HollingsheadA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coordination">Coordination</h3></div>

<p>Coordination refers to the extent of necessity in explicit revealed planning and coordinating efforts during <a href="Teamwork" title="Teamwork">teamwork</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a group possesses a strong transactive memory system, the need for explicit coordination efforts reduces since teammates are aware of other teammates strengths and weaknesses, can anticipate their behavior and responds, and make quick adjustments of their own behavior in return.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner95_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner95-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In groups that have developed a transactive memory, members are able to easily coordinate with one another and can go directly to those with expertise if they need their information.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Credibility">Credibility</h3></div>

<p>'Credibility' reflects the extent to which the team members believe that the relevant task knowledge possessed by any of the other team members is correct and accurate.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis03_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis03-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When groups that developed a transactive memory system, they will have gone through the encoding, storing, retrieval process several times for information. As new information is brought to the group's attention it can be evaluated and then reencoded into the transactive memory system. If a member's area of expertise has been used several times without issue, then other group members will begin to see the group member's knowledge as more credible (Wegner 1987).<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis03_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis03-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a group has a well-developed transactive memory system, all members within the group would be seen as credible.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Team_performance">Team performance</h2></div>

<p>The existence of a transactive memory system within a group allows for quick access to a large amount of knowledge, improving information integration processes,<sup id="cite_ref-canon01_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canon01-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> improving decision making processes,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> influencing the <a href="Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> of efficiency of other teammates, and increasing their satisfaction and sense of <a href="Organizational_identification" title="Organizational identification">identification</a> with the team and the organization.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transactive memory is composed of specialized knowledge and understanding of who has that knowledge, but benefits are not limited to just groups that engage in a lot of <a href="Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">knowledge work</a>.

</p><p>Transactive memory may enhance performance through three major <a href="Mechanism_(sociology)" title="Mechanism (sociology)">mechanisms</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis03_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis03-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moreland99_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreland99-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>Division of the responsibility on different kinds of knowledge across the teammates allows each one of them to broaden his own knowledge in a specific area while maintaining access to relevant required task knowledge possessed by others.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner86_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner86-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Developing transactive memory system will shorten the time needed for seeking the appropriate knowledge: when each team member knows whom to turn to for the required information, less time is wasted in search for relevant task knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-wegner86_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wegner86-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>The shared understanding of the teammates regarding the <a href="Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">interpersonal relations</a> in the team and the different expertise domains, enables them to better predict and anticipate how their team colleagues would behave, leading to well coordinated and efficient <a href="Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">interactions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-canon93_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canon93-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>Transactive memory may not be helpful for all kinds of groups or all kinds of work. Lewis and Herndon (2011) suggested criteria for kinds of tasks that a developed transactive memory system will be the most helpful in improving the performance of.

</p>

<ul><li>Tasks that require diverse knowledge.</li>

<li>Tasks that require a deep understanding of specialized knowledge.</li>

<li>Tasks where the credibility and accuracy of information is important.</li>

<li>Tasks where it is possible to know which members possess expertise.</li>

<li>Tasks that require a complete application of knowledge to the task.</li>

<li>Tasks where efficient coordination between members is important.</li></ul>

<p>For these reasons, groups performing tasks that can't be broken apart or require little specialization may not get much benefit out of the development of a transactive memory system. The authors suggest that tasks where ideas have to be executed and all members have the same goal will benefit the most from a transactive memory system. Conversely the authors suggest that groups that engage in brainstorming or decision tasks may develop transactive memory systems faster than those merely executing ideas because there is more knowledge sharing and interaction between members.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extensions_to_other_domains">Extensions to other domains</h2></div>

<p>When transactive memory was first envisioned, the authors were describing an external memory store within other people. They did acknowledge that we often store information within objects such as notebooks, books, or other recordings. These objects are static and transactive processes cannot occur. These objects, therefore, cannot cue memories within individuals in the same way another person could. The Internet, however, is much more dynamic than a book and individuals can engage in similar transactive processes as they would with other individuals. Research published in the journal <i><a href="Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i> on 14 July 2011 suggests that when people expect to have future access to information, they have lower rates of recall of the information, but higher rates of recall of the sources of the information.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors suggest that this research demonstrates that individuals are developing a transactive memory system with the Internet, relying on it for information instead of internalizing it within their own memories. To explain how external memory stores are related to transactive memory systems, Schakel (2013)<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> described them as external artifacts which may either (be used to) influence or represent the ostensive or performative aspects of transactive memory systems.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-wegner85-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wegner85_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wegner85_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wegner85_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wegner, D. M., Giuliano, T., & Hertel, P. (1985). Cognitive interdependence in close relationships. In W. J. Ickes (Ed.), Compatible and incompatible relationships (pp. 253–276). New York: Springer-Verlag.</span>

</li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFWegner1995" class="citation journal cs1">Wegner, D. M. (1995). "A computer network model of human transactive memory". <i>Social Cognition</i>. <b>13</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">319–</span>339. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1521%2Fsoco.1995.13.3.319">10.1521/soco.1995.13.3.319</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-wegner86-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wegner86_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wegner86_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wegner86_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wegner86_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wegner86_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wegner86_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wegner86_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wegner86_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wegner86_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wegner, D. M. (1986). Transactive memory: A contemporary analysis of the group mind. In B.Mullen & G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Theories of group behavior (pp. 185–205). New York: Springer-Verlag</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lewis11-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis11_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis11_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLewisHerndon2011" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Kyle; Herndon, B. (2011). "Transactive memory systems: Current issues and future research directions". <i>Organization Science</i>. <b>22</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">1254–</span>1265. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1287%2Forsc.1110.0647">10.1287/orsc.1110.0647</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Ren11-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ren11_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ren11_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ren11_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRenArgote2011" class="citation journal cs1">Ren, Yuquing; <a href="Linda_Argote" title="Linda Argote">Argote, L.</a> (2011). "Transactive Memory Systems 1985–2010: An Integrative Framework of Key Dimensions, Antecedents, and Consequences". <i>The Academy of Management Annals</i>. <b>5</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">189–</span>229. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F19416520.2011.590300">10.1080/19416520.2011.590300</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Hollinghshead98B-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hollinghshead98B_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hollinghshead98B_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHollingshead1998b" class="citation journal cs1">Hollingshead, A.B. (1998b). "Retrieval processes in transactive memory systems". <i>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</i>. <b>74</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">659–</span>671. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.74.3.659">10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.659</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Liang95-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liang95_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liang95_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLiangMorelandArgote1995" class="citation journal cs1">Liang, D. W.; Moreland, R. L.; <a href="Linda_Argote" title="Linda Argote">Argote, L.</a> (1995). "Group versus individual training and group performance: The mediating role of transactive memory". <i>Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin</i>. <b>21</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">384–</span>393. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167295214009">10.1177/0146167295214009</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145473164">145473164</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Rulke00-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rulke00_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rulke00_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRulkeRau2000" class="citation journal cs1">Rulke, D.; Rau, D. (2000). "Investigating the Encoding Process of Transactive Memory Development in Group Training". <i>Group & Organization Management</i>. <b>25</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">373–</span>396. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1059601100254004">10.1177/1059601100254004</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145600821">145600821</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Lewis,_K._2004-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_K._2004_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_K._2004_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2004" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, K (2004). "Knowledge and performance in knowledge-worker teams: A longitudinal study of transactive memory systems". <i>Management Science</i>. <b>50</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1519–</span>1533. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1287%2Fmnsc.1040.0257">10.1287/mnsc.1040.0257</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-canon93-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-canon93_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-canon93_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E., & Converse, S. A. (1993). Shared mental models in expert team decision making. In N. J. Castellan, Jr. (Ed.), Current issues in individual and group decision making (pp.221–246).Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum</span>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHinszTindaleVollrath1997" class="citation journal cs1">Hinsz, V. B.; Tindale, R. S.; Vollrath, DA (1997). "The emerging conceptualization of groups as information processors". <i>Psychological Bulletin</i>. <b>121</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">43–</span>64. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.121.1.43">10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.43</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9000891">9000891</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-HollingsheadA-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HollingsheadA_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HollingsheadA_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollingshead, A. B. (1998a). Distributed knowledge and Transactive processes in groups. In M. A.Neale, E.A.Mannix, and D.H.Gruenfeld (Eds.), Research on managing groups and teams (Vol.1). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press</span>

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<li id="cite_note-:0-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Moreland R.L and Myaskovsky L. (2000). Exploring the Performance Benefits of Group Training: Transactive Memory or Improved Communication? Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes Vol. 82, No. 1, 117–133.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFIlgenHollenbeckJohnsonJundt2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ilgen, D.R.; Hollenbeck, J.R.; Johnson, M.; Jundt, D. (2005). "Teams in organizations: From I-P-O Models to IMOI models". <i>Annual Review of Psychology</i>. <b>56</b>: <span class="nowrap">517–</span>543. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.56.091103.070250">10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070250</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15709945">15709945</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15290229">15290229</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Lewis03-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis03_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis03_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis03_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis03_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis03_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis03_17-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2003" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, K. (2003). "Measuring Transactive Memory Systems in the Field: Scale Development and Validation". <i>Journal of Applied Psychology</i>. <b>88</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">587–</span>604. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.483.8560">10.1.1.483.8560</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-9010.88.4.587">10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.587</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12940401">12940401</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAustin2003" class="citation journal cs1">Austin, J. (2003). "Transactive memory in organizational groups: The effects of content, consensus, specialization, and accuracy in group performance". <i>Journal of Applied Psychology</i>. <b>88</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">866–</span>878. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.541.3805">10.1.1.541.3805</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-9010.88.5.866">10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.866</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14516250">14516250</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAustin2003" class="citation journal cs1">Austin, J. R. (2003). "Transactive memory in organizational groups: The effects of content, consensus, specialization, and accuracy on group performance". <i>Journal of Applied Psychology</i>. <b>88</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">866–</span>878. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.541.3805">10.1.1.541.3805</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-9010.88.5.866">10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.866</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14516250">14516250</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-canon01-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-canon01_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCannon-BowersSalas2001" class="citation journal cs1">Cannon-Bowers, J.A.; Salas, E. (2001). "Reflections on shared cognition". <i>Journal of Organizational Behavior</i>. <b>22</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">195–</span>202. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjob.82">10.1002/job.82</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStasserStewartWittenbaum1995" class="citation journal cs1">Stasser, G.; Stewart, D. D.; Wittenbaum, G. M. (1995). "Expert roles and information exchange during discussion: The importance of knowing who knows what". <i>Journal of Experimental Social Psychology</i>. <b>31</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">244–</span>265. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjesp.1995.1012">10.1006/jesp.1995.1012</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMichinovOlivier-ChironRuschChiron2008" class="citation journal cs1">Michinov, E.; Olivier-Chiron, E.; Rusch, E.; Chiron, B. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbja%2Faem404">"Influence of transactive memory on perceived performance, job satisfaction and identification in anesthesia teams"</a>. <i>British Journal of Anaesthesia</i>. <b>100</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">327–</span>332. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbja%2Faem404">10.1093/bja/aem404</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18234678">18234678</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Moreland99-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moreland99_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moreland, R. L. (1999). Transactive memory: Learning who knows what in work groups and organizations. In L. Thompson, D. Messick, &J. Levine (Eds.), Shared cognition in organizations: The management of knowledge (pp. 3–31). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum</span>

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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSparrowLiu,_JennyWegner,_Daniel_M.2011" class="citation journal cs1">Sparrow, Betsy; Liu, Jenny; Wegner, Daniel M. (14 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1207745">"Google Effects on Memory: Cognitive Consequences of Having Information at Our Fingertips"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>333</b> (6043): <span class="nowrap">776–</span>8. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...333..776S">2011Sci...333..776S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1207745">10.1126/science.1207745</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21764755">21764755</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7688306">7688306</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchakel2013" class="citation book cs1">Schakel, Jan-Kees (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dare.uva.nl/document/484776"><i>Organizing distributed knowledge for action: the structure, functioning, and emergence of organizational transactive memory systems</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFSchakel2013" class="citation book cs1">Schakel, Jan-Kees (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dare.uva.nl/record/446187"><i>Organizing distributed knowledge for action: structure, functioning, and emergence of organizational transactive memory systems</i></a>. AmsterdamVossiuspers UvA. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789056297381</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLewisHerndon2011" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Kyle; Herndon, B. (2011). "Transactive memory systems: Current issues and future research directions". <i>Organization Science</i>. <b>22</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">1254–</span>1265. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1287%2Forsc.1110.0647">10.1287/orsc.1110.0647</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRenArgote2011" class="citation journal cs1">Ren, Yuquing; <a href="Linda_Argote" title="Linda Argote">Argote, L.</a> (2011). "Transactive Memory Systems 1985–2010: An Integrative Framework of Key Dimensions, Antecedents, and Consequences". <i>The Academy of Management Annals</i>. <b>5</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">189–</span>229. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F19416520.2011.590300">10.1080/19416520.2011.590300</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWegnerErberRaymond1991" class="citation journal cs1">Wegner, D. M.; Erber, R.; Raymond, P. (1991). "Transactive memory in close relationships". <i><a href="Journal_of_Personality_and_Social_Psychology" title="Journal of Personality and Social Psychology">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a></i>. <b>61</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">923–</span>929. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.366.9260">10.1.1.366.9260</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.61.6.923">10.1037/0022-3514.61.6.923</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1774630">1774630</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWegner1995" class="citation journal cs1">Wegner, D. M. (1995). "A computer network model of human transactive memory". <i>Social Cognition</i>. <b>13</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>21. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1521%2Fsoco.1995.13.3.319">10.1521/soco.1995.13.3.319</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090502070418/http://www.istheory.yorku.ca/transactivememorytheory.htm">Transactive Memory Theory</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_memory558" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Human_memory558" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Human_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human memory">Human memory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroanatomy_of_memory" title="Neuroanatomy of memory">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">Sensory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">Echoic</a></li>

<li><a href="Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Eyewitness_memory" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness</a></li>

<li><a href="Haptic_memory" title="Haptic memory">Haptic</a></li>

<li><a href="Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic</a></li>

<li><a href="Motor_learning" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_memory" title="Visual memory">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">Short-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>"<a href="The_Magical_Number_Seven%2C_Plus_or_Minus_Two" title="The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two">The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two</a>"</li>

<li><a href="Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">Active recall</a></li>

<li><a href="Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">Autobiographical</a></li>

<li><a href="Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Explicit</a>

<ul><li><a href="Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Declarative</a></li>

<li><a href="Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Flashbulb_memory" title="Flashbulb memory">Flashbulb</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">Implicit</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal-event_memory" title="Personal-event memory">Personal-event</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural</a></li>

<li><a href="Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_retention" title="Selective retention">Selective retention</a></li>

<li><a href="Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Forgetting" title="Forgetting">Forgetting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde</a></li>

<li><a href="Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">childhood</a></li>

<li><a href="Posthypnotic_amnesia" title="Posthypnotic amnesia">post-hypnotic</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-traumatic_amnesia" title="Post-traumatic amnesia">post-traumatic</a></li>

<li><a href="Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">dissociative (psychogenic)</a></li>

<li><a href="Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_amnesia" title="Selective amnesia">selective</a></li>

<li><a href="Transient_global_amnesia" title="Transient global amnesia">transient global</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li>

<li><a href="Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_erasure" title="Memory erasure">Memory erasure</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li>

<li><a href="Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">Motivated forgetting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Experiential_avoidance" title="Experiential avoidance">avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Repression_(psychoanalysis)" title="Repression (psychoanalysis)">repression</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">suppression</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">Repressed memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval-induced forgetting</a></li>

<li><a href="Weapon_focus" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Memory_error" title="Memory error">Memory errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">Imagination inflation</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">Memory biases</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li>

<li><a href="Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">Memory implantation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Methods_used_to_study_memory" title="Methods used to study memory">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Exceptional_memory" title="Exceptional memory">Exceptional memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Indirect_tests_of_memory" title="Indirect tests of memory">Indirect tests of memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">Collective memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_and_social_interactions" title="Memory and social interactions">Memory and social interactions</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li>

<li><a href="Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">Art of memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a></li>

<li><a href="Elaborative_encoding" title="Elaborative encoding">encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Memorization" title="Memorization">memorization</a></li>

<li><a href="Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_rehearsal" title="Memory rehearsal">rehearsal</a></li>

<li><a href="Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">repetition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Effects of alcohol</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Memory" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Effects of exercise</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_stress_on_memory" title="Effects of stress on memory">Effects of stress</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_improvement" title="Memory improvement">Memory improvement</a></li>

<li><a href="Nutrition_and_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition and memory">Nutrition</a></li>

<li><a href="Sleep_and_memory" title="Sleep and memory">Sleep</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_and_trauma" title="Memory and trauma">Trauma</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Memory_sport" title="Memory sport">Memory sport</a>

<ul><li><a href="World_Memory_Championships" title="World Memory Championships">World Memory Championships</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Absent-mindedness" title="Absent-mindedness">Absent-mindedness</a></li>

<li><a href="Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model</a></li>

<li><a href="Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">Context-dependent</a> and <a href="State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent</a> memory</li>

<li><a href="Childhood_memory" title="Childhood memory">Childhood memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Exosomatic_memory" title="Exosomatic memory">Exosomatic memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_recall" title="Free recall">Free recall</a></li>

<li><a href="Intermediate-term_memory" title="Intermediate-term memory">Intermediate-term memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Involuntary_memory" title="Involuntary memory">Involuntary memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Flashback_(psychology)" title="Flashback (psychology)">flashbacks</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Levels_of_Processing_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li>

<li><a href="Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a>

<ul><li><a href="Intertrial_priming" title="Intertrial priming">intertrial</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">Prospective</a> and <a href="Retrospective_memory" title="Retrospective memory">retrospective</a> memory</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">The Seven Sins of Memory</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></li>

<li><a href="Susan_Clancy" title="Susan Clancy">Susan Clancy</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li>

<li><a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li>

<li><a href="Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Izquierdo" title="Ivan Izquierdo">Ivan Izquierdo</a></li>

<li><a href="Marcia_K._Johnson" title="Marcia K. Johnson">Marcia K. Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li>

<li><a href="Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a></li>

<li><a href="Geoffrey_Loftus" title="Geoffrey Loftus">Geoffrey Loftus</a></li>

<li><a href="James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a></li>

<li><a href="Eleanor_Maguire" title="Eleanor Maguire">Eleanor Maguire</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li>

<li><a href="Lynn_Nadel" title="Lynn Nadel">Lynn Nadel</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Henry L. Roediger III</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Shiffrin" title="Richard Shiffrin">Richard Shiffrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_P._Shimamura" title="Arthur P. Shimamura">Arthur P. Shimamura</a></li>

<li><a href="Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li>

<li><a href="Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li>

<li><a href="Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></li>

<li><a href="Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Stickgold" title="Robert Stickgold">Robert Stickgold</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jonathan_Hancock" title="Jonathan Hancock">Jonathan Hancock</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_R._McHugh" title="Paul R. McHugh">Paul R. McHugh</a></li>

<li><a href="Dominic_O'Brien" title="Dominic O'Brien">Dominic O'Brien</a></li>

<li><a href="Ben_Pridmore" title="Ben Pridmore">Ben Pridmore</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmos_Rossellius" title="Cosmos Rossellius">Cosmos Rossellius</a></li>

<li><a href="Andriy_Slyusarchuk" title="Andriy Slyusarchuk">Andriy Slyusarchuk</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

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<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="skin-invert-image noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul>

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This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-06-17" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Transactive_memory&oldid=1296088064">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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